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The Creation of Singapore

Monday, 9 August 1965 was not intended to serve as anything but a normal start of yet another week. People had gone to work expecting nothing unusual to happen, and children were at school studying just as they had done a week before. Still this was to change quite abruptly at 10 am, when the island's first Prime Minister, Lee Kuan Yew, proclaimed the news of an independent Singapore. The result of the negotiations between Singapore's government and Malaysia certainly was not expected, probably it was not even intended. Yet, from virtual threshold, the island nation should impressively enough rise to achieve one of the world's highest living standards. Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, who founded Singapore in 1819, could not possibly have imagined that his new-founded colony was to grow to the prominence of an independent nation. Or could he have? Looking at Singapore prior to 1819, and indeed the entire region, one can not help wondering why the location was not taken better use of at an earlier time. Through this paper I will try to answer these questions, and explore why and how things turned out as they did.

It has often been said that the continually increasing progress of Singapore, and consequently also its already remarkable prosperity, historically can be traced directly back to Raffles. Therefore a history of Singapore must include a close focus on the thinking of this fascinating individual, but before commencing on a journey of the immediate preface to the colonial age; it should be remembered there were people inhabiting the island even before the arrival of this distinguished Englishman. First I will therefore take a look at the first inhabitants of Singapore, this before considering the impact of the first European arrivals in the area. These are all important factors leading up to the founding of colony that currently enjoys the liberty of being an independent city-state. 

The amount of knowledge we have of early Singaporean history can be illustrated by the numerous theories that exist on the origin of the island's name. Anyone visiting the popular Tourist State today will see that lions have a very central position, this even though the general understanding is that lions probably never have inhabited the island. Yet, some English scholars did in the end of the last century introduce a theory claiming that Singapore is derived from Sanskrit word for lion, singha, and the word pura, meaning city. Malay history, the Sejara Malayu, also indicates a similar origin. According to Muslim historians, a descendant of Alexander the Great, Sang Nila Utama, founded the city in AD 1160, and after having seen what he believed to be a lion near the mouth of the river, he decided to give the city its current name.

As earlier mentioned, numerous other theories have also come into existence due to wide-ranging historic research implemented the last couple of decades. Some claim the city was named after various Indian kings, but most conclude that lions at least have something to do with the name's origin. Perhaps the most innovative theory is the linkage of Singapore to that of an early religious sect, an adherent of Majapahit Bhairava Buddhism, whose followers were known as lions because of their wild orgies. Yet the speculation and uncertainty surrounding the origin of Singapore's name does only act as a short prelude to its more important pre-colonial history, and Mr. John Crawford probably spoke for the anguish of many later historians when he in 1856 wrote on Singaporean history that it is "full of obscurity".

History prior to the founding of Singapore can not be easily traced back beyond the sixteenth century. The main sources from this age are Malay, both in written and unwritten form, and the accounts of Chinese travelers and Portuguese historians. Yet, even though history before the sixteenth century is obscure, it is feasible to imagine that the island at an early stage was involved in the international trade route between East and West, especially so the commerce between Indonesia and countries as India, China, Persia and Arabia. Obviously did much of this trade go through the Straits even back then, and it is believed some of the first settlers in Singapore were traders who decided to found small Hindu and Buddhist states in the area. Munshi Abdulla, a 19^th century native Muslim, asserted in a book that the Island of Singapore is celebrated in Malayan history as being the first place of settlement for the early Malay colonists. These would of course later go on to found the Empire of Malacca. It may in addition be noted that Marco Polo mentioned an island-city named Temasek, which is now believed to be Singapore, but from his account it does not seem likely Singapore at the time was in the forefront of trade and expansion.

A Chinese trader, Wang Ta-Yuan, provided the first real account we have of anyone visiting Singapore. He traveled extensively in South-East-Asia about 850 years ago, and describes the early, but fairly active settlements in Singapore. Life was depended on trading and piracy, this due to the limited resources found on the island. After China started its fateful process of isolating itself from the world in the late 14^th century, Portuguese historians and Malay Annals provide almost all the information on which we can base our knowledge of Singapore up to 1819. It was just around this time the name "Singapura" came into existence; a name later changed to the current Singapore.

Many will today be inclined to give Hong Kong some credit for the success of post-independence Singapore. The former British colony has through the years played the role as an active and vigorous rival of Singapore, and has never allowed Singapore to cool down or stop progressing. A comparison to this relationship can be drawn between Singapore and a nearby city the first years after the colony's founding. Singapore was soon to surface victorious in the battle for trade and power in the region, this while the competing city, Malacca, would commence on a long journey of economic decline.

After the Portuguese captured Malacca, now one of Malaysia's most popular tourist attractions on the West Coast of the peninsula, Singapore became an outpost for what was left of the Malacca Sultanate. Yet, the presence and victory of the colonial forces was inevitable, and only a hundred years later the Malay power in the area was almost totally diminished.

Thus started the colonial influences to be of serious prominence also for the villages of Singapore, but their initial altering effect on the island should not be exaggerated. By the year 1819, the number of inhabitants living in Singapore is only measured to have been around a thousand, a fact which I will focus on in a more throughout manner when the specific basis for Raffles' creation of Singapore is to be discussed. For now it is more interesting to consider the consequences of the Portuguese, and later Dutch influences in the region. Arriving before the British, they had a chance to establish and fundament a power presence in the Southeast Asia, and the strength of the Dutch is one of the explanations for why Britain had to start from scratch when trying to increase their share of trade in the area. Singapore was established by the British to compete with an earlier mentioned city, Malacca, which history and power must be understood if the creation of Singapore is to make sense.

Being mentioned as early as 1403 in Chinese annals, Malacca's king was recognised by the Chinese Emperor only two years later. Soon becoming a trading centre of vital importance, the city consequently attracted European interest. Sir George Birdwood categorised the Portuguese conquerors that in 1511 captured the city as a "pack of hungry wolves upon a well-stocked sheep walk". Holding Malacca from 1511 to 1641, their colonial adventure in Malaysia has not often been deemed a success by later historians. A very unsophisticated and disastrous economic policy, which goal was create a commercial monopoly in the area, has received much of the blame for this low evaluation. Traditional Catholic religious intolerance must also bear some responsibility, and perhaps it was just as well that the much more pragmatic Dutch conquered Malacca in 1641. Generally perceived as being almost obsessed with profit, they were able to separate religion from economics, and most people lives would only to a very small degree be affected by Dutch colonial policies.

The Dutch trading company Vereenigde Oostandische Compagnie (VOC) allowed local rulers to remain as long as they traded exclusively with the VOC. This limited interest in Government affairs allowed the preservation of the old Indonesian political and administrative order, but gave the native population only a small share of the profits obtained from the European trade. In addition, local rulers were by the end of the seventeenth century required under a system of forced deliveries to send to the company's warehouses fixed amounts of produce at fixed prices. These practices, along with the strong Dutch navy, allowed the Dutch to install their pre-eminence in the archipelago's trade with Europe. Even though Holland did not quite manage to establish a monopoly in Southeast-Asia, just the fact that it was their goal acted as a deprivation to most inhabitants in the region. Especially the areas under direct control of the VOC were affected, and many have considered the enforced deliveries of produce at low prices to have been nothing but a form of tribute that the colonial masters exacted from the traditional nobility and the helpless peasantry of the archipelago.

While the Dutch managed to extract en enormous profit from the trade with the region, the Indonesian economy was not provided any stimulus. The ability to separate religion and trade made them less unpopular than the Portuguese had been, but there was not much reason for the native population to grieve when they in 1795 became subjects of yet another nation.

By holding on to Malacca, Holland secured control over both the strategic straits in Southeast Asian waters - Malacca and Sunda. Most products from the Spice Islands had to go through these straits, and so important was the trade to the Dutch that they would destroy spice-bearing trees in forbidden areas. It should be noted that Britain officially did not capture Malacca from the Dutch, this because the homeland of the last-mentioned were occupied by Napoleon Buonaparte and the newly established French Republic. Malacca was therefore initially occupied purely for military reasons, and the city turned out to a major economic burden for Britain. Most of the trade had been diverted to Penang, and the British tried to hand Malacca back to its former owners during the conclusion of the Peace of Amiens in 1802. Yet, the war resumed before the retrocession could be made, and the occupation of Malacca would ultimately continue until 1814. Yet as Britain towards the end of this period truly discovered the importance of trade in the area, perhaps it is not strange they found it necessary to establish a trading station, which would command the Straits of Malacca. This returns us to the centre of our interest, Singapore, which was the place finally selected and finally ceded to Britain by the formal Treaty of the 6^th February 1819.

This should now have explained much background for the establishment of Singapore, and a further weakening of the Dutch position led Holland to transfer Malacca back to Britain in 1825. Even though a further study of the years following the establishment of Singapore is beyond the scope of this paper, 1819 certainly marked the beginning of what today is the well known success story of Singapore. Rulers and conquerors of Singapore have changed since then, but the geographical factors in Singapore's early history and development remain constant. As these are partly responsible for much of the island's success, they certainly do deserve a closer presentation.

One of the factors that influenced the choice of Singapore as a trading settlement, was the seasonal wind system. Malacca did during its golden age enjoy the winds that would take ships from west to east, or the other way around, this depending on the season. As earlier mentioned did the Straits of Malacca serve as a major trade route between China and the northern littoral of the Indian Ocean. The insular, fragmented and indented nature of the coastlines did in addition facilitate penetration, and this made the region very attractive to foreign seafaring traders. Evidently ships were the most economical mode of transport in the area, and the natural accessibility of the area exposed it to numerous external influences. A big majority of people lived within 80 miles of the sea, which made converting natives to new faiths easier than in for example the mountains of China. Overall the relatively cheapness and ease of communications within, and transit through Southeast Asia, contributed to the region's further economic development. These factors all contributed to making the region dynamic and active long before the arrival of the Europeans, but as earlier explained, the prominence of Singapore's geographical location was first understood only about two centuries ago. Finally, later historians have been very keen to emphasise the importance of considering ethnicity in the political geography of Singapore. The presence of various nationalities, especially Chinese and Tamil immigrants, today give Singapore a very cosmopolitan flavour. Yet it is important to remember that most of these first arrived during the supremacy of Britain, and that Singapore up to 1819 was a largely Malay story. Obviously Arab, Persian and Chinese merchants would frequently enter the area, but the stimulating effects on the island's economy must have been very limited, this as the number of Singaporean inhabitants remained fairly low. Therefore it is safe to say that Malays crucially dominated the early history of Singapore, this in contrast to the case of modern Singapore, of which great ethnic majority is Chinese.

After having considered geographic, economic, demographic and ethnic factors, one last human factor has to be considered if the founding of Singapore is to be truly understood. Even though historians still greatly differ in their estimations of his importance, there is reason to believe Singapore would not have come into existence without the initiative and effort of Sir Stamford Raffles. Though as controversial as he might be, the many biographies written on the official of the English East India Company tell the tale of both a fascinating life and an equally spellbound fascination with his person. Raffles was born into an economically struggling, but still perceivably relatively stable family in 1781. At the age of 14, and obviously without any formal education, Raffles joined the East India Company in London as a clerk and was promoted as Assistant Secretary to the newly formed Penang Presidency in 1805. He later served as Lieutenant-Governor of Java from 1811 to 1816, all this during the earlier described period when Britain took control over the Dutch colonies due to Napoleon's occupation of Holland. There seems to have been reached a consensus on the Englishman's early abilities as an administrator, and the general agreement among historians is that a decision taken in 1816 that relieved Raffles of his duties was justified. During his five years in power he involved the Company in heavy loss, this in addition to having problems understanding the complicated traditions of Javanese society. Thus he was recalled in disgrace in 1816.

Still he was only to stay in Britain for two years, and returned back to Southeast Asia in 1818, this time as appointed Lieutenant Governor of Bencoolen on Sumatra's east coast, currently better known as Bengkulu. Soon realising that the Dutch possessed the only passes through which ships could sail into the Archipelago, he started making plans which purpose was to diffuse British influence throughout the region. Initially Lord Hastings, who happened to be the governor-general of India at the time, mostly rejected his plans. Yet, he got permission to undertake a limited project for protecting Britain's trade route through the Straits of Malacca, this as long as he promised not to bring the Company into conflict with the Dutch, who earlier had massacred British competitors in the region. Trying to secure an agreement with Acheh to establish a station near the Straits of Malacca, Raffles and his good friend Colonel William Farquhar set out to find a suitable place to establish a trading post. After some unsuccessful negotiations with the Dutch, and after having considered various other alternatives such as the Carimon Islands, Raffles and a fleet of eight ships anchored up outside the mouth of the Singapore river on 28 January 1919. Some of Raffles' biggest admirers have argued that the small island had fascinated the Englishman for a long time. One of the most fascinating arguments presented is a letter Raffles sent back to Britain quite some time before the founding of Singapore, where he wrote: "You must not be surprised if my next letter to you is dated from the site of the ancient city of Singapura".

Thus it is that Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles could plant the British flag only two days later, and what many considers to be the real history of Singapore could begin. The founding of Singapore did perhaps surprisingly not lead to any violent confrontations between Holland and Britain, and Britain's good skills in diplomacy must be given most of the credit for this fact. It has as mentioned been discussed if Raffles' statue in Singapore is as inane as that of the lion, this as they together stare out over the Bay of Singapore. Still, an estimation of Raffles' achievements in the post-founding period would be out of the scope of this paper, so also the economic success story leading up to the island's independence in 1965. If one takes into consideration that the island was home to only about a thousand souls before Raffles' founding, the astounding growth to a population of 3,1 million becomes thus more spectacular. In the first volume of his autobiography, Lee Kuan Yew asks rhetorical questions on why Singapore's independence came into existence so suddenly. Twisting his words to make them fit the founding of Singapore, it might as well be said: "Why so late?"

Bibliography

Buckley, Charles Burton. An Anecdotal History of Old Times in Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1953. 

Chew, Ernest C. T., and Edwin Lee. A History of Singapore. Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1991. 

Makepeace, Walter, Gilbert E. Brooke and Roland St. J. Braddell. One Hundred Years of Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1991. 

SarDesai, D. R. Southeast Asia. Colorado: Westview Press, 1997. 

Turnbull, C. Mary. A History of Singapore, 1819-1975. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1977. 

Yew, Peter, Lee Kuan. The Singapore Story. Singapore: Prentice Hall, 1998.